Human Trafficking Is The Modern Form Of Enslavement

Initiatives on Human Trafficking Almost two centuries after the 16th President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, a new type of slave trade has taken possession of the lives of many human beings worldwide. Human trafficking is the modern form of enslavement. It includes the purchasing and selling of individuals for forced labor or sexual abuse. This new type of enslavement of human beings is evident all around the world. Additionally, the number of enslaved victims today is surpassing that of the Atlantic slave trade. There are approximately 20 to 30 million individuals involved in today’s human trafficking business. These statistics are alarming to experts and the community, therefore many actions are taken into†¦show more content†¦There are about 19,000 probable victims or even more suffering in the human trafficking trade. 64% of cases involved sex trafficking and 22% had to do with forced labor. 3% had a mix of both. Additionally, children form 33% of beings involved in commer cial sex trade and 20% of kids form part of those under forced labor. A very large 61% of these are from the United States. The initiative of the hotline is successful in taking steps toward a slave-free future. The hotline entrusts survivors of the forced labor and sex trade to safe shelters and mental health services after being abused. Various calls entering from truck drivers have been about a fishy situation they’ve encountered that they believe involves prostitution of young girls. A call presented in the Polaris Report1 demonstrates how a trucker who stopped at a truck stop noticed girls knocking on cab doors late at night. The girls were taken under custody for protection. A federal approach on the topic is also taking action. Several senators as well representatives show approval of the passing of a bill that would provide better resources to help those abused and assist in enforcing of the law. The bill is titled â€Å"Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act†. The bill would 1 Polaris Report - A very helpful resource that enables extensive information on human trafficking from the United States to reach out and allow the assisting of many victims. bring justice as well as help many victims obtainShow MoreRelatedHow Much Would You Sell For?1131 Words   |  5 Pagesand Crime (UNODC), Trafficking in Persons is defined as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. The most common forms of human exploitation are sexualRead MoreHuman Trafficking Is A Form Of Modern Day Slavery1568 Words   |  7 PagesModern Times Slaves Human trafficking is a form of modern day slavery where its perpetrators profit from control, exploitation, coercion and defrauding of others through forced labor, or sexual exploitation and in some cases both. Sexual exploitation is the most prevalent form of human trafficking especially in the United States. Even though accurate statistics are rare in this field, those currently existing approximate that massive numbers of women and girls are sold for sexual exploitation withinRead MoreHuman Trafficking Is The Illegal Act Of The Trading Of Human Beings1510 Words   |  7 PagesHuman trafficking is the illegal act of the trading of human beings for the main purposes of sexual slavery, and forced labor. The 1400’s was the beginning of the African slave trade and has been going on ever since. This crime started in the 1400s and has been ongoing ever since, growing exponentially every decade. This crime is a violation of human rights and yet it is happening worldwide, even her e in the United States. This needs to be stopped because victims in this system experience physicalRead MoreSlavery And The United States1690 Words   |  7 Pagesend of legal slavery. Today a modern form a slavery still continues not only in the United Sates but other countries as well. Some forms of modern slavery are human trafficking, forced marriage, and forced labor. According to Employee Relations Law Journal â€Å"slavery is where ownership is exercised over a person, where individuals are coerced into providing their services or do so under threat of a penalty.†(Whincup, Garbett, McNicholas Spring 2014 65) Human trafficking is the act of capturing a personRead MoreHuman Dignity And The Inalienable Rights Of Every Person1251 Words   |  6 PagesWhen Europeans began to colonize the New World at the end of the 15th century, they were well aware of the institution of slavery. Slavery has been a part of human society since its beginning and it continues to increase today. This kind of activities continues to growth in today’s society in different forms every country in the world. Mostly women are forced to practice prostitution, children and adults may be required to work in farming or factories producing goods for global corporate companiesRead MoreHuman Trafficking Is A Global Phenomenon1054 Words   |  5 Pagesexploitation of human beings who were forced into labor with no freedom of movement or choice. However, the reality of the situation is that slavery still exists today, and on an even greater scale than it did many years ago. That form of slavery is human trafficking. I t is commonly referred to as modern-day slavery†. People are still stripped of human dignity, choice and human rights on a grand scale. Human trafficking is a global phenomenon that manifests in the form of sex trafficking, bonded laborRead MoreSoc315 Eeoc Paper1042 Words   |  5 Pagesbecause of the persons race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age (40 or older), disability or genetic information. (Overview, para. 1)† The EEOC is committed to holding employers accountable for benefiting from the modern day enslavement of workers from other countries. Their job is to ensure that all workers foreign and those of the U.S., are protected under the law and have the right to complain of such employment abuses which damage the foundation of our society. ComplianceRead MoreHuman Trafficking Is Not A Choice1132 Words   |  5 PagesCrime against humanity – stripped of their individual freedoms and identities d. Human beings are considered a commodity, and human trafficking is the business. e. Treatment of slaves - no less brutal or degrading today; These individuals are being exploited with the sole intent of being sold to increase one’s economic status; used and reused, abused with force and exploited i. Despite the differences in the various forms of slavery that exist in the 21st century, the survivor testimonies bear a remarkableRead MoreBlack Women And Black Men773 Words   |  4 Pagespeople, races, ethnicities, and or genders. Any and all injustices towards a certain group can and always seems to have an everlasting effect. One huge injustice that occurred in our history that until this day has had everlasting effects is the enslavement of blacks. White men were considered dominant and superior while white women and both black men and women were powerless and controlled. Compared to white women and black men, black women were found deeply at the bottom of the hierarchy. Black womenRead MoreChild Labor And Child Rights884 Words   |  4 Pageswere taken to end slavery in other countries. Even though people believe that slavery no longer exists today, about 5.5 million children are still held captive in slavery (Anti- Slavery International 2012). Child slavery can come in ma ny different forms. There are a few differences between child work, child labor, and child slavery. Child work is beneficial to the child. Work can be used to gain skills or knowledge that is essential for the child growing up. Work can also be a source of income for

Microscopic Look At Jfk s Inaugural Address - 982 Words

Microscopic Look at JFK’s Inaugural Address The 1960’s was a time when the world was facing the Cold War and America was facing the Civil Rights Movement. On January 20, 1961, at the age of 43, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was sworn into office as the 35th President of the United States. As the youngest president of the United States, Kennedy needed to prove to the American citizens that he was a great leader and that they did the right thing to elect him. (History.com) The night before JFK’s inaugural it snowed so hard that many people found it difficult to attend the inauguration, however more than twenty thousand people were in attendance. (Baergen) During the Inauguration, President Kennedy gave his most famous speech, The Inaugural Address, which evoked a sense of unity into the American citizens and gave them a sense of confidence in their young leader, which was gravely needed at that moment. Kennedy’s prerogative was to be an outstanding leader; and so he was, by addressing social inequality and poverty , stating the need to end the threat of nuclear destruction, and yearning for peace, whilst having a brave and powerful demeanor. John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address was about fourteen minutes long, making it the one of the shortest inaugural address in history. (History.com) However, it was one of the most powerful, yet influential, speeches. In those fourteen minutes, Kennedy addressed many crucial issues that were important for the new president to discuss at that

Neoliberalism and Biophysical Environment - MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Neoliberalism and Biophysical Environment. Answer: Introduction Neoliberalism remains to be the group of economic strategies that have continued to widen during the past twenty-five years or so. The concept of neoliberalism in Australia has remained quite so widespread in some political, academic, and labor relations debates. Neoliberalism remains to be the inevitable trend towards the development of advanced technologies in different employment sector such as transportation, information, together with information sector (Castree 2011, p. 28). Neoliberalism had a massive impact on the Australian employment sector, as employment issues remain to be critical to every nation globally. These effects lead to influence the system of Australians industrial relations that has existed as distinctive in the international arena, although it shares various commonalities with the systems of other nations. Besides, neoliberalism has risen to the forefront of the Australian politics in the last several decades, economic restructuring of governmental policies ha ve been enactable to conform to the changing employment relations within the global context. Besides, the impact of neoliberalism on the Australian economy has consistently figured as the reason to warrant the significant changes to labor relations (Ferradas 2013, p. 263). Therefore, this document focuses on addressing several effects of neoliberalism on employment relations within Australian society. Neoliberalism faces numerous critics from the people within the Australian marketplace. Some of the criticism that affects the working relationship includes the market-liberalizing policies sacrifice social and political rights of individuals. The relation between the neoliberalism and employment relation in Australia according to many scholars is markedly negative. The negative association arises despite the mounting empirical evidence that the right of workers may be conducive to the competitive economy (Battin 2017, p. 152). The important influences boost in the rate of global amalgamation along with attainment activity. Effects of neoliberalism on Australian employment relation consist of flexibilization of job marketplace, increasing employment shifts, escalating atypical along with non-standard types of labor, changes in the content of work and conditions of working. Other effects include the multi-skilling, mismatch of skills, and the requirement for lifelong knowledge among w orkers. However, Australia approaches these employment relations in various approaches, and standards of employment thus differ widely all over the country. Moreover, neoliberalism has led to enormous along with the far-achieving shifts in the entrepreneurs (Schoonmaker 2017, p. 1009). The variations in labor relations remain to be outcomes of severe international spirited anxieties mugged by ventures working in Australian markets. Neoliberalism and consequences for workers along with workplace The innovation of technological techniques has always remained to be an essential issue of adjustments in the employment sector. However, variations owing to the neoliberalism and launching of advanced communication technologies in labor have particular impacts. It aids in promoting employees to be efficient in their operations by speeding up the process of global changes in the section of regularly affecting work sites. The main effects of neoliberalism in Australian employment relation remain to be the change from the physical strain of work to the stable handling of information, intellective operations with their concomitant stressors such as excessive increase of mental workload (Rizo 2011, p. 1179). The idea of labor virtualization along with alteration from the corporeal to spiritual actions remains to be casualization of work. The rise of new technologies because of neoliberalism implies changed skill hassles, the fresh division of limited labor, and adjustment in operations o f the organization. Besides, the account of Australian employment in the 20th century is the account in which science, as well as technology is inside facts and not ability labels the procedure (Renfew 2011, p. 589). Neoliberalism has led to the development of world-wide-web as well as the preface of new along with capital demands of information technology in venues of work. Neoliberalism motivates the virtually universal development in shares of female on the non-farming labor power among high development or semi-industrialized progressing economies of the Australia in the last few decades. Neoliberalism results to the incredible growth in the manufacturing operations as well as oversea sales processing in Australia. Neoliberalism has led to boosts in females service that have transpired among the overseas traders of non-traditional farming goods like stylish fruits along with vegetables or flowers in Australia that engage in the further anciently female features of the services business (Castree 2013, p. 1729). The neoliberalism has led to the development of the constructive connection between liberalization of trade and female service in Australia. The relationship remains to be strong in labor-abundant in Australia. However, in chiefly agricultural financial systems such as Australia where women concentrate in the import-rival farming sector such as food yields, the male remains to have a better place in taking merit of activities in export sector in cash crops or ordinary supply extraction. Besides, neoliberalism has led to cases where women lose service and proceeds because of the formation of trade liberalization. Therefore, neoliberalism largely affects female within the employment sector compared to their counterparts in production. Additionally, neoliberalism led to the creation of work choices that fail to address the dichotomy that Australian women face in balancing the productive and reproductive labor. Neoliberalism resulted in the formation of the legislations collective bargaining powers along with aims for individualization in the workplace (Brody Curtis 2017, p. 71). The neoliberalism also shows that any failure in the workplace in the provision of the greater protection for different women in the place of work is inconsistent with laws and objectives of employment relations in Australia. Flexibilization of labor marketplace Neoliberalism has mainly helped in the prevention of social conflict in the employment sector. Liberation is presentable to poor and working people in Australia as progressive compared to conservative or rightwing. The neoliberalism aid leaders to focus on the traditional working environment and this had the great impact on improving their relations with other employees within different organizations (Watson 2015, p. 138). The Australian great capitalist crisis over the last twenty-five years has led to developing of more profits for cooperates presently, with the rapid globalization of the Australian capitalist economy makes the employment sector of the country to be on the global scale. Besides, neoliberalism comprises of different major views such as the statutes of the marketplace, deregulation, and privatization, unkind public expenses for standard services, and abolishing the notion of the community. Around the Australia, neoliberalism has been able to be imposable by influenti al financial organizations like the global monetary fund along with the global Bank. In Australian employment sector, the beneficiary of neoliberalism is the majorities that are within different employment sectors. Along with the globalization especially in Australian labor marketplace, neoliberalism has led to the creation of new changes as well as features in the global competitive environment (Hilgers 2013, p. 79). It has also resulted in the decentralization of negotiation between labor together with workers more flexible salary system, allocation of work, and seminar organization with industrial dealings. In Australia, neoliberalism has positively affected the industrial affairs in with various varieties of the marketplace economy. The growth of neoliberalism with globalization has led to enrichment of cross-border resources streams, conventional industrial relations schemes. Neoliberalism has hastened the inter-reliance in Australian market between its operations that offer new potential for economic progress in the employment sector (Curran Quinn 2012, p. 471). Neoliberalism helps in the development of human society as well as inevitable outlines of the global employment sector. Under neoliberalism, Australia has new skilled issues and substantially confront in its industrial associations. Therefore, neoliberalism remains to be the compilation of economic plans hold by the ideological pledges that argue for the dreams of reduction of state-involvement in the financial system to promote human as well as economic efficiency (Mole 2014, p 41). It remains essential to understanding tha t economic neoliberalism helps the relative high structure of freedom official among people while institution in neoliberal remains to be a more moderate about taxation and macroeconomic intervention. Improving collective bargain Neoliberalism continues to be the major factor in developing the joint again within the employment sector. In most cases, the collective agreement continues to be the primary and essential approach to dealing with labor relations in Australia. However, collective bargain in employment sector refers to the process where employers, as well as employees, are having the opportunity to negotiate their interests (Biebricher 2015, p. 259). Neoliberalism makes the employee bargaining power in Australia to be better evaluating to those in developing nations. Under the neoliberalism, the collective bargain of Australia tends to be less significant and different organizations gain superior prudence in wage scene across the employment sections. Neoliberalism has made work unions in Australia to be confrontable with the declined power of bargaining and influence. Therefore, employee unions have remained to focus on reaching the appropriate approach to maintain the relation correctly. However, it cannot be viewable that employee unions are still functioning ing in the maintenance of the relationships between employees along with employers in Australia. The influence of neoliberalism has made Australian employment firms to emphasize in the consultation between employees together with staff. Under neoliberalism end, there occur many unknown competition forces within the work coming from the market operations (Zhang 2011, p. 581). The firms extremely emphasize the employment relations in Australia as the adequate resources to be the spirited international marketplace. With the neoliberalism, there was a need for international cooperation in the employment operations. Many Australian companies through neoliberalism started to set-up sub-companies in the abroad marketplace. The development of such markets helps in improving the labor relations because people were able to move freely and looking for a job in foreign nations away from Australia. Besides, neoliberalism accelerates the changing structure of employment relations in the international marketplace. Through neoliberalism, Australia has been able to maintain its category of employment affairs in local organizations extremely well as well as in a mature manner (Deakin et al., 2012, p. 245). However, whenever there is a need of addressing the issue of managing the workforce in other nations like China, companies need to focus on designing employment relations that are suitable for the local cultural context of Australian communities. Therefore, neoliberalism makes the collaboration of employmen t sector between Australia and other countries like China to focus on designing appropriate labor relations. The nation achieves the formation of suitable collaboration by combining the market economy to create new industrial relations (Olcott Oliver 2014, p. 211). Under neoliberalism, employment ties in Australia companies tend to experience the immense contest to shift the ancient models of practices of work. Increasing labor migration The view of globalization is just the global element of the massive plan of neoliberalism transformation. The change by the neoliberalism in the employment sector leads logically to the confusion that the experimental increased in disparity that remains as best transformation for the neoliberalism. Besides, neoliberalism reform has largely contributed to increasing inequality in many different approaches (Nimeshakari 2011, p. 37). The change of neoliberalism towards tax along with welfare system has to lead to fewer following techniques of taxation and less liberal societal security technologies, thus increasing the disparity of the allocation of income through post-taxation. Neoliberalism leads to increase of reliance on outsourcing as well as competitive tendering within the employment sector while reducing the job security of workers. The neoliberalism ensures the safety of every employee even those employed by profitable enterprises as well as within the Australian public sector organizations. Neoliberalism has enhanced removal of employment insecurity by increasing the elimination of constraints on the power of employers to hire together with fire at force. Additionally, neoliberalism transformations have the huge impact on contributing to labor marketplace in Australia. The neoliberalism, in general, helps in favoring managers along with skilled employees while removing interventions that protected the interests of less-skilled workers within the Australian employment sector. Besides, ideas that relate to the increase in Australian employment sector and its insecurity associated with the neoliberalism reforms (Geogeou Engel 2011, p. 307). These improvements tend to increase the significance of stochastic element about the determination of income. Therefore, the formation of the productive business environment within the Australian business marketplace by neoliberalism tends to increase labor migration. More employees keep on moving to the well-developed regions with the urge of attaining employment (Jackson et al., 2013, p. 266). The move is always high among the people who reside in rural areas and looking for a job in urban regions. Therefore, neoliberalism influences increasing labor migration within the employment relations in Australia. The ascendancy of the neoliberalism state In early days of the 1980s, Australia undergoes through the proper procedure of the state in reforming the course that has massively transcended alterations at federal, state, along with local points. The momentum for reforming employment sector within Australia by the neoliberalism has mainly come from the federal level (Gekava Faithbrother 2013, p.57). The formation of national level through neoliberalism comprises of conventional together with labor regulations that have realized the main along with the ongoing transformation of the civil service and linked groups that initiated with the introduction of cases of managerialism together with public utilities. All these new situations in the employment sector through neoliberalism aim at restructuring and developing the major privatization programs that companies use to recruit, hire, and fire their employees. The reform of neoliberalism presents the development of Australian employment sector to be part of the agenda that comprises of microeconomic reform (Ellen 2015, p. 329). Besides, neoliberalism intended at creating the Australian state market to be spirited in the global marketplace. Therefore, microeconomic transformations brought by the neoliberalism included the imposition of improved management control over workers along with individualizing the relations of employment. Neoliberalism individualizes relation of employment relations as well as the further foundation of makeups of Australia along with the move of service stipulation function to personal along with community segment. Despite the emphasis on regulation of Australian employment sector, neoliberalism schedule has permeated more than just viable dealings. Various scholars argued that neoliberalism perceives the centrality of the marketplace management as the leading replica of financial supervision (Rizo 2011, p. 1189). The actual request of neoliberalism in employment sector of Australian community has extended to the character of policy as well as the method in which the power along with treatment of employment policies. The treatment of employment policies with different measure has made neoliberalism to involve the dominance of the marketplace in the community to the tip where it remains to be the end of its operations. The two principal aspects of neoliberalism that focus on the changes in work content along with conditions of work include the formation of privatization along with the elimination of the interests state. Besides, many of the effects that result in changes in work content have not been ambitious by neoliberalism principle nor have been inconclusively appearing. Effects of neoliberalism are the term to be essential grounds of financial globalization outside the empire of critical learning in employment relations within the Australian community. The most cited cause of liberalizing trade remains to be the neoliberalism (Engel Halvorson 2016, p. 548). Through neoliberalism, Australia has been able to exploit its financial gains by concentrating in manufacturing as well as dealing goods that it can create to be quite affordable. However, by disparity, neoliberalism fight individualist along with chains of free trade on the notion that it offers individualism within the employment sector together with increased choices for consumers. It also focuses on providing freedom for people within Australia to conduct business transnational. Besides, through neoliberalism, Australia can create the better option of where as well as whom individual desires to demeanor their activities (Geoffrin et al.., 2017, p. 7). In most cases, neoliberalism affects employment relation within Australia by changing working conditions. Most business partners and job seekers tend to concentrate much on places with good employment opportunities and improved marketplaces while they migrate from areas that lag behind in development. Conclusion Understanding the employment experience by different people in Australia as well as the transition of work gives the greater appreciation of nature to precarious work. There is nothing out of the ordinary about the experiences and influence of neoliberalism on the Australian employment sector. Many different people within the region accept and appreciate the impact of neoliberalism on the labor relations within the Australian community. Besides, the notion of neoliberalism remains to be elusive to employment sector. Neoliberalism shows that labor relations can continue to be critical factors that influence the labor relations of a country. Therefore, there is a need for every firm within Australia and other regions affected by neoliberalism to create a strong stand that they can use in dealing with employment dealings in organizational correctly to be spirited in the international marketplace. The proper address of influence of neoliberalism in the Australian employment relations is the essential struggle by every organization management within the ever-changing business markets. The trajectory of reforms of neoliberalism over several decades bears similarity that undergoes and underway in other advanced economies within the employment sectors. The major focus of the impact of neoliberalism in Australian employment sector should be human cost of neoliberalism specifically in lower as well as working-class persons. The free-marketing policies remain to be the important step within the employment sector in ensuring prosperity and full freedoms throughout nations around the global marketplace. References Battin, T. (2017). Labouring under neoliberalism: The Australian Labor governments ideological constraint, 20072013. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 28(1), pp.146-163. Brody, H. and Curtis, K. (2017). Do EEOC Subpoena Rulings Deserve Deference? And Looking Back: The Impact of the Supreme Court's Spokeo Decision on Employers. Employment Relations Today, 44(2), pp.67-77. Curran, D. and Quinn, M. (2012). Attitudes to employment law and the consequent impact of legislation on employment relations practice. Employee Relations, 34(5), pp.464-480. Deakin, S., Hobbs, R., Konzelmann, S. and Wilkinson, F. (2012). Partnership, ownership and control. Employee Relations, 24(3), pp.335-352. Ellem, B. (2015). Resource Peripheries and Neoliberalism: the Pilbara and the remaking of industrial relations in Australia. Australian Geographer, 46(3), pp.323-337. Engel, S. and Halvorson, D. (2016). Neoliberalism, massification and teaching transformative politics and international relations. Australian Journal of Political Science, 51(3), pp.546-554. Gekara, V. and Fairbrother, P. (2013). Managerial technologies and power relations: a study of the Australian waterfront. New Technology, Work and Employment, 28(1), pp.51-65. Geoffrion, S., Goncalves, J., Sader, J., Boyer, R., Marchand, A. and Guay, S. (2017). Workplace aggression against health care workers, law enforcement officials, and bus drivers: Differences in prevalence, perceptions, and psychological consequences. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, pp.1-18. Georgeou, N. and Engel, S. (2011). The Impact of Neoliberalism and New Managerialism on Development Volunteering: An Australian Case Study. Australian Journal of Political Science, 46(2), pp.297-311. Jackson, J., Cunningham, I. and Dutton, A. (2013). The impact of the Employment Relations Act 1999 on Scotlands voluntary sector. Employee Relations, 23(3), pp.256-270. Mol, N. (2014). Precarious Subjects: Anticipating Neoliberalism in Northern Italy's Workplace. American Anthropologist, 112(1), pp.38-53. Nimushakavi, V. (2011). Organizing Domestic Workers and Workplace Rights: A Case Study from Hyderabad. Journal of Workplace Rights, 16(1), pp.31-46. Olcott, G. and Oliver, N. (2014). The impact of foreign ownership on gender and employment relations in large Japanese companies. Work, employment and society, 28(2), pp.206-224. Rizzo, M. (2011). Life is War: Informal Transport Workers and Neoliberalism in Tanzania 1998-2009. Development and Change, 42(5), pp.1179-1206. Watson, I. (2015). Wage inequality and neoliberalism: The Australian experience. Journal of Industrial Relations, 58(1), pp.131-149. Zhang, N. (2011). The impact of guanxi networks on the employment relations of rural migrant women in contemporary China. Industrial Relations Journal, 42(6), pp.580-595. Biebricher, T. (2015). Neoliberalism and Democracy. Constellations, 22(2), pp.255-266. Castree, N. (2011). Neoliberalism and the Biophysical Environment 3: Putting Theory into Practice. Geography Compass, 5(1), pp.35-49. Castree, N. (2013). Neoliberalism and the Biophysical Environment 1: What Neoliberalism is, and What Difference Nature Makes to it. Geography Compass, 4(12), pp.1725-1733. Ferrads, C. (2013). The Nature of Illegality Under Neoliberalism and Post-Neoliberalism. PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review, 36(2), pp.266-273. Hilgers, M. (2013). Embodying neoliberalism: thoughts and responses to critics. Social Anthropology, 21(1), pp.75-89. Renfrew, D. (2011). The Curse of Wealth: Political Ecologies of Latin American Neoliberalism. Geography Compass, 5(8), pp.581-594. Schoonmaker, S. (2017). Globalization from Below: Free Software and Alternatives to Neoliberalism. Development and Change, 38(6), pp.999-1020.

Letter In Spanish Essays - DraftJohnny Sky, Luis Segura

Letter In Spanish Hola Rosi como estas espero que bien?, discculpame que no tenga dos signos de interrogacion pero la computadora namas tiene dos, o la letra ~n. como te ha hido? a mi muy bien! cuentame como te va enla escuela? Que ha pasado en Mexico? Porfavor no le ence~nes esta carta ha nadie porque hay un ni~no en la eacuela que eata muy guapo, se llama Emmett Turner, tiene el cabello cafe-casta~no, sus hojos son verdes es un poco mas alto que mi, es muy buena gente y no es gordo. Yo orita estoy gugando soccer en el equipo de la escuela y me gusta mucho, tambien estoy hugando tennis y tambien me gusta mucho. Ha se como tres meses me fracture un dedo de la mano derecha, el otro a`no me paso lo mismo y hase cuatro dias me paso lo mismo, se me olvido desirte como me he fracturado los dedos de la mano, fue cuando estaba huque gando basketball, tambien me gusta hugar mucho basketball. Mi mama me dijo lla no hugara baskeball, pero me gusta mucho i no lo puedo dejar. Rosi en la escuela acabe de terminar clase de computadora, ya puedo escribir sin ver la tabla y rapido. En la escuela que estoy te exigen muchisimo es medio dificil algunas veces, pero si me gusta mucho y tengo muchas amigas. Raquel esta empesando ha manejar, Que miedo! Yo en dos a~nos yo lla tambiem voy ha empesar ha manejar. Bueno Rosi te voy ha volver ha escribir bye. P.D escribeme, y saludos. Foreign Languages

Geography Of Japan Essays - Japanese Archipelago, Hokkaido

Geography of Japan Geography of Japan Perhaps more than any other nation in the world, Japan is shaped by its geography to a tremendous extent. Technically classified as an archipelago, Japan is a curved chain of four islands (Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, plus over a thousand smaller islands). However, it is first and foremost an island nation, a fact which isolated Japan from the rest of the world. The second largest influence in Japanese geography is the size of the nation. The total area of Japan proper is a little under 143 thousand square miles; the contiguous United States spreads across just over 3 million. To say that Japan is crowded with its 130 million people would be an understatement. But add that to the fact that seventy-five percent of the nation is hilly or mountainous, and the wide open spaces for living and working are even more crammed. The mountainous terrain, lack of lowlands and plains all have had far-reaching consequences on the development of Japan and its people. No study of them is accurate without a study of Japan's geography. Before Japan was unified, many different clans held power over different parts of the islands. Centralizing power proved difficult because of the physical disunion. Once a nation, though, Japan's island geography kept Japan isolated from even its closest neighbor, Korea. Being a group of islands was the main reason Japan could maintain its isolationist ways until just a century ago. It was also the main reason for a strong maritime outlook in the Japanese. It has over 17 thousand miles of coastline, which means almost all the centers of population (lowlands) have sea frontage. The term "center of population" isn't fair to the "non-centers" of population. Except in the northern island of Hokkaido, all parts of Japan are still crammed with over 300 persons per square mile. The centers have population densities of over 512 persons per square mile. The seventh most populous nation in the world lives in an area smaller than the state of Montana. This circumstance fed Japanese expansionism in the early twentieth century, and is now a daily challenge for the Japanese people and leaders as they deal with an ever-shrinking space dilemma. Nowhere is the dilemma more dramatically playing out than in the big cities. Japan's six largest cities were built in its only two major plains. There are simply no more suitable flatlands to build additional cities. The rest of Japan is cast with high mountains with considerable volcanic activity. Earthquakes, then, have become a commonplace occurrence in the daily life of many Japanese. In 1981, only 14.6 percent of Japan was arable. Rice, Japan's most important food crop for centuries, is intensively cultivated on terraced hillsides because there are not enough flat paddy fields to feed the whole nation. A hard-working Japanese peasantry has resulted from the agricultural challenges.

Free Essays on Aggression As A Concept

Aggression is a social behavior that differs throughout cultures and society. Aggression is also a trend that occurs in nature’s wildlife. Some animals are more aggressive than others. For example, lions can and will attack almost any other animal for its prey. This is very different behavior from a giraffe that can barely defend itself while feeding on a nearby tree. Some societies seem to have more aggressive behavior than others. Germany, when under the influence of Hitler, had a very high death rate among its Jewish population, which devastated many families. Aggression can also be a biological trend through a family’s genes and DNA. Researchers have tried to link aggression to heredity and hormones. Many structures in the brain have been found to be very significant in studying aggression within families. A high level of the hormone, testosterone, has also been linked to aggressive behavior. These are very interesting aspects of aggression, but this essa y will mainly focus on aggression as a product of social learning. The social learning theory explains that aggression is likely to be learned by watching others who have an aggressive nature in their actions, which is very dangerous. Violence is usually a result when dealing with aggression among society. In Sdorow’s Psychology textbook, he states that researchers have found women to be more aggressive after watching their parents act aggressively. A study conducted by Albert Bandura showed that children acted aggressively towards a â€Å"Bobo doll† after seeing an adult hitting the doll several times. The behaviors towards the doll were very different than those of children who did not observe any aggression towards Bobo. Children are also more likely to show aggression towards other children after watching a violent show on television. Many cultures and countries other than the United States show aggression in their society. Rome used to hold gladiator e... Free Essays on Aggression As A Concept Free Essays on Aggression As A Concept Aggression is a social behavior that differs throughout cultures and society. Aggression is also a trend that occurs in nature’s wildlife. Some animals are more aggressive than others. For example, lions can and will attack almost any other animal for its prey. This is very different behavior from a giraffe that can barely defend itself while feeding on a nearby tree. Some societies seem to have more aggressive behavior than others. Germany, when under the influence of Hitler, had a very high death rate among its Jewish population, which devastated many families. Aggression can also be a biological trend through a family’s genes and DNA. Researchers have tried to link aggression to heredity and hormones. Many structures in the brain have been found to be very significant in studying aggression within families. A high level of the hormone, testosterone, has also been linked to aggressive behavior. These are very interesting aspects of aggression, but this essa y will mainly focus on aggression as a product of social learning. The social learning theory explains that aggression is likely to be learned by watching others who have an aggressive nature in their actions, which is very dangerous. Violence is usually a result when dealing with aggression among society. In Sdorow’s Psychology textbook, he states that researchers have found women to be more aggressive after watching their parents act aggressively. A study conducted by Albert Bandura showed that children acted aggressively towards a â€Å"Bobo doll† after seeing an adult hitting the doll several times. The behaviors towards the doll were very different than those of children who did not observe any aggression towards Bobo. Children are also more likely to show aggression towards other children after watching a violent show on television. Many cultures and countries other than the United States show aggression in their society. Rome used to hold gladiator e...

Evaluation and Judgment using Internal and External Evidences Essay

Evaluation and Judgment using Internal and External Evidences - Essay Example The evidence based decision making process can also be applied in other clinical processes especially by clinical experts towards improving the output services provided to the patients and also to improve relevant policy making processes that are effected by national and local government legislators in conjunction with health administrators (Wolberg, 1995). Nonetheless, the evidence based decision making process to addressed in this essay are those that involve patient diagnostic health concerns towards improving then health status of the involved patient. In the evidence based evaluation of the medical conditions of a patient, the doctor or involved practitioner is required to adopt both internal and external evidence based examinations. The internal evidence are usually based on the knowledge acquired from formal education experiences and trainings with accumulated practice experience obtained from daily practices and or specific experience individually gained from clinical patient relationship (Wolberg, 1995). In other words, the internal experiences in any practice or profession are those experience gained from educational and work backgrounds. On the other hand, external evidences are the knowledge acquired through extensive research on a particular field of interest. Nonetheless, both internal and external evidences should be examined critically towards evaluating patients’ medical conditions none of which quality medication may be difficult to come by from such evaluations (Wolberg, 1995). Additionally, determination and application of relevant methods of evaluation is vital towards effective judgment. All the issues affecting a patient must be examined closely from multiple sources. It is worth noting effective evidence based decision making in the medical practice can only be achieved through sound application of both internal and external evidence based decisions. In examining patients, the only sure ways of determining their medical conditions may be either asking questions or conducting diagnostic tests on them. The interviews aimed at determining medical conditions are usually structured and aim at determining health problems that the patient is undergoing. Notably, only with internal evidence that a doctor or involved practitioners can related to the answers provided by the patient to the actual medical condition the patient; otherwise, wrong decisions that may further affect the patient’s medical condition may emerge from such evidence based evaluations. Additionally, from the same interviews, the involved medical practitioner may use the information provided by the patient through answering questions and link them such answers with internal evidence and arrive at an amicable medical report (Wolberg, 1995). Medical conditions of similar characteristics usually related to nearly the same medical condition. However, if the doctor or the involved medical practitioner has some slightest doubt, he or she may embark on additional examination to ascertain his or her doubts. In essence, in the evidence based examinations, doctors among other medical practitioners must find the finest and relevant as well as accurate information towards arriving at the conclusive judgments. The other sure way of ascertaining t he medical conditions or evidences that are provided by the patient in an interview is conducting medical testing (Wolberg, 1995). Medical testing also requires interval evidence practice experience; otherwise, wrong result may be reported from the test. Therefore, doctors among

Safe use of Health Information Technology Research Paper

Safe use of Health Information Technology - Research Paper Example Poor workflow and inefficient communication inevitably create more health IT sentinel events. Although communication and workflow are vital, the clinical content must also be well-structured to enable effective communication (The Joint Commission, 2015). For example, health records managers must be supplied with relevant and cogent information because they enter clinical data into systems on an as-is basis. Wrong or illegible data creates problems during retrieval. The success of any health IT framework also depends on internal organizational policies, procedures and cultures. These three aspects should be congruent with the overall objectives of the health IT system. Some cultures, policies and procedures hinder the efficient operation of the system, leading to health sentinel IT situations (Johnson, 2014). The level of training received by health staff determines their effectiveness in their duties. However, training is merely a means to an end. Employees should be taught to follow set policies and procedures or their training will be futile. The type of hardware and software used in a specific health IT framework determines the frequency with which sentinel events occur. To this effect, hardware and software must be relevant, usable, and adaptable (The Joint Commission, 2015). External factors, including vendor and other issues occurring in the external environment can also cause a health sentinel IT event. In some cases, legal and social challenges (e.g., culture) can increase the number of health sentinel IT situations (Balgrosky, 2014). Research shows that regular system appraisal and monitoring significantly reduces the probability of critical situations

Religious Influence on Japanese Art Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Religious Influence on Japanese Art - Term Paper Example Japanese art spans a wide range of media and styles including ancient pottery, wood and bronze sculptures, silk and paper calligraphy, ink painting and performing arts (Nobutaka 52). Japan has historically been subjected to invasions by new and alien cultures, ideas and religions. As the Japanese assimilated and imitated the foreign cultural and religious elements, their forms of art also took a shape influenced by the changes (Tsutsui 104). Although a majority of Japanese people are not exclusively identified as adherents of a certain religion, the strongest indigenous religion is Shinto (Sokyo 89). Buddhism and Confucianism strongly influenced prehistoric Japanese art. It was a representation of nature in a spiritual perspective unlike the secular perspective of scientific realism (Abe 64). Shinto, a form of nature worship has existed from ancient Japan (Sokyo 89). It means the way of the gods. A kami is a Shinto deity (Sokyo 90). Through Shintoism, the Japanese worshipped spirits thought to inhabit in natural phenomena like waterfalls, rocks and mountains. The kami were not initially represented symbolically, but rather, their perceived habitats were demarcated. However, with the adoption of the developed Buddhism and Confucianism styles of art, the Japanese people were prompted to introduce art into Shintoism, creating Shinto sculptures and paintings (Sokyo 101). They also created artifacts used in worship that symbolized kami. These were mostly in the form of protective items and amulets. The protective items and amulets used in the ancient Shinto religion were also a form of art (Sokyo 101). They used small wooden plaques called Ema to write and draw pictures of their wishes and placed them in shrine grounds for the wishes to be fulfilled by the deities (Abe 55). Of uda were religious talismans curved out of wood or formed from paper and metal, with names of kami inscribed on them for delivery of good luck. Paper modeling may also be traced back to daruma, which are paper doll representations of Bodhidharma, an Indian monk (Sokyo 101). The Shinto faithful used them to forward wishes to the kami. Another form of paper modeling is the inuhariko, a paper dog used to pray for good births. The Shinto also molded earthenware bells in the form of zodiacal animals called dorei, for use in prayers for good fortune. In Shinto architecture, the earliest shrines constructed to house ancestral spirits are a suggestion of the outline of single dwelling homes in ancient Japan. Similar to the ancient Japanese domestic homes, the shrines were entirely wooden (Sokyo 102). Japan’s relationship with Korea and China paved the way for the infiltration of artistic techniques and styles (Tsutsui 111). As Buddhism moved from Korea to Japan with it came artistic influences such as Buddhist texts, architecture and icons (Sugimoto 230). Art and craft specialists also migrated to Japan from China and Korea and participated in creating the new arts. With the introduction of Buddhism in the mid 6th century, Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines began to incorporate the same architectural designs. The structure of the Shinto shrines got more elaborate under the Chinese and Korean influence (Sugimoto 230). Since shrines also reflected family dignity, the designs were commissioned by noble families and many more structures were built in Nara and Kyoto cities (Sugimoto 231). Buddhist art in Japan is categorized into periods or eras. It shaped Japanese art from the 6th to the 16th century (Tsutsui 109). The Amida sect of Buddhism laid the foundation of Buddhist art in Japan. Prince Shotoku encouraged Buddhist art in the Suiko period while Emperor Shomu encouraged it in the Nara period of 645 to 784. In these eras, indigenous Shinto arts were taking the shapes of Buddhist arts and architecture, and the demand for Buddhist paintings increased among the wealthy Japanese

Abraham Lincolns Second Inaugural Address

Abraham Lincolns Second Inaugural Address Abraham Lincoln and His â€Å"Second Inaugural Address† Delivered March 4, 1864 Though delivered almost 150 years ago, Abraham Lincoln’s (1809-1865) second inaugural address continues today to be an exemplary model of leadership, demonstrating its abilities in political unification, cues to nation-building, goals of social progression, and most importantly, its expression of the importance of national reconciliation. Given at a time when a young American country was still reeling from the Civil War, Lincoln’s address not only reaffirmed the Union’s justification for fighting against Confederate secession and insurgency, but also extended a hand to the formerly rebellious states that found themselves structurally and economically debilitated by the end of the war. A work of oratory mastery, Lincoln’s content was not nearly as important as the address’ literary devices such as assonance, alliteration, and diction. Then-president Lincoln’s style and delivery prove that today’s politicians and leadership stand much to gain from the model presented at Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address. The beginning of Lincoln’s final term saw a distressed nation left economically and structurally ravaged. Costing the lives of more Americans than any war in its short history, the Civil War was the product of a social, economic, and political rift between the Northern Union and the insurgent Southern Confederacy of secessionist states. Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address therefore had to satisfy several requisites. The speech had to take special care to give praise where due to the Northern Union army and its loyal population without alienating the defeated South, still reeling from the economic blow dealt to its agrarian majority by the abolition of slavery. In order to maintain this delicate balance, â€Å"Lincoln began the shift in content and tone that would give† the second inaugural address â€Å"its singular meaning,† inclusive to both North and South (White 61). In his Lincoln’s Greatest Speech: The Second Inaugural, Ronald C. White makes no te of Lincoln’s â€Å"masterful understanding and use of both imagery and distinctive phrase,† tools that America’s sixteenth president would use as part of an â€Å"overarching strategy† emphasizing â€Å"common actions and emotions† (White 61). George Rable stressed the importance of non-political language in Lincoln’s address in his The Confederate Republic: A Revolution against Politics, as the Southern population was infamously apolitical in its views and practices. Lincoln’s diction therefore had to be deliberately neutral in diction and content so as not to highlight the existing tension between North and South, the major differences manifested in the stereotypes of the prototypical agrarian Southerner and politicized, industrial Northerner. Lincoln was less â€Å"intellectual and studied in tone† in delivering his second inaugural address, focusing more on religious allusions and spiritual reference (White 22). A key feature of the address, Lincoln’s use of religious overtones was neutral in its acceptance in both the North and South. Though taking great care to give the North credit for â€Å"accepting the war rather than let it perish† (Lincoln, lines 17-18) Lincoln did his best not to alienate the South but also took great care not to indemnify the insurgents in the face of his loyal Union constituency. To avoid a potentially catastrophic venture, Lincoln used Christianity and references to Protestant texts shar ed by both national contingents. With such radically different constituents, religion was the only common ground, resulting in a final address that notorious author and black activist Frederick Douglass found more akin to a â€Å"sermon than a speech† (White ii). Lincoln’s religious allusions served to emphasize national unity in similarity, as seen in lines 29-30 in his reference to Northern and Southern populations â€Å"both [reading] the same Bible and [praying] to the same God.† Furthermore, Lincoln alluded to religion as a mechanism to displace blame on either party for the violence that transpired following the Confederate secession from the Union. In lines 29-32, Lincoln urges the two halves of the nation to â€Å"judge not† its counterpart lest they in turn â€Å"be judged†. Placing the final victory in an intangible God’s proverbial hands, the politically masterful president did not place the moral imperative in the hands of either North or South, instead referencing the â€Å"Almighty’s [purposes]† in line 30 which in turn were assumed in the Judeo-Christian tradition incomprehensible by man. The heavily religious theme of the address kept abreast of the apocalyptic undertones of the war. In such a fractious time in American politics, both sides endorsed the distribution of their own versions of the Bible. White links the use of religion as a propaganda tool to encourage both reluctant Northern and Southern populations of their justifications for war: â€Å"With the beginning of hostilities, Bibles were produced almost as quickly as bullets. The American Bible Society made the decision to supply Bibles to all soldiers. At the Bible House, headquarters of the ABS in New York City, sixteen power presses printed and bound the books. The increase in the publication of Bibles was astonishing. In the first year of the Civil War, the American Bible Society printed 370,000 more Bibles than in the previous year† (White 102). Lincoln’s somewhat exploitative use of religious allegory was therefore not a novel concept; the hastened production of Bibles reflects both the Union and the Confederacy’s employment of religious justification to override whatever national allegiances would erstwhile prevent war. Lincoln’s address counteracted this stratagem employed by both North and South, neither negating nor supporting either side’s contentions that divine providence remained with their respective side. Richard Striner detailed the importance of the religious factor in Lincoln’s speech through a private letter Lincoln wrote to a contemporary, wherein Lincoln made special note to mention that â€Å"men are not flattered by being shown that there has been a difference of purpose between the Almighty and them†; â€Å"to deny it, however, in this case, is to deny that there is a God governing the world† (Striner 251). The letter continued, stating that the concept of man’s helplessness under divine will â€Å"is a truth which [Lincoln] thought needed to be told† (Striner 251). Glen Thurow’s Abraham Lincoln and Political Religion portrays Lincoln as a shrewd politician who understood the power of religious allegory in political speech. Thurow accentuates Lincoln’s foresight in his recollection that â€Å"Lincoln’s law partner, William H. Herndon, [claimed] after [Lincoln’s] death that the president was not a believer in Christianity; [and] some even testified he was an atheist† (Thurow 12). From this vantage, a different Lincoln is brought to the forefront, his re-election address taking on an entirely new significance. For all his political foresight and social innovation, Lincoln did not challenge the heavily religious tones of Washington. Selective of what views he would reveal to the American public, Lincoln was hence an innovator in every sense of the word, an abolitionist leader of a nation whose agrarian half depended on the institution of bondage for its sustenance. Moreover, Lincoln was also an atheist president o f a religious people, one of the primary reasons his two most impacting speeches—the Second Inaugural Address and the Gettysburg Address—were so religious in their hyperbole. More than maintaining the faà §ade of Lincoln’s religious piety, religious speech bolstered what White refers to as the â€Å"homespun† factor (White 15). As a man of humble beginnings, Lincoln’s appeal as a self-made man sharply contrasted that of the social elite who elected him into power. The apolitical South, despite its misgivings about Lincoln’s intentions for the future of America, recognized Lincoln as more than a member of the political bourgeois. Though they perceived his immense support from the Northern elite, the Southern contingent of the country also observed his detractors decrying his â€Å"homespun† style of speech and persona as something that gained him the enmity of his Northern opposition. A considerable amount of confusion stemmed from Li ncoln’s religious ambiguities; though he never belonged to an established church, Lincoln frequently attended services with his wife, Mary. Thurow observes that â€Å"much of the confusion surrounding Lincoln’s religion stems from the fact that commentators have tried to see whether he belonged to the religion of the churches, neglecting the possibility that his speeches were political, not religious, or were religious because they were political† (Thurow 14). It was not Lincoln’s lack of professed faith that made him a leader, but rather his understanding of the unifying effect of religion and his â€Å"carefully thought-out understanding of political religion in America† (Thurow 14). Just as the Confederacy would make use of Christianity’s most sacred texts to justify everything from slavery to secession, so would Lincoln take advantage of religious overtones to unify America and promote national reconciliation and reconstruction. A brilliant orator, Lincoln’s choice of diction played a significant role in the delivery and conveyance of Lincoln’s message of national reconciliation and unity. Taking care not to use divisive terms such as â€Å"we† or â€Å"they† to refer to Northern and Southern constituents (respectively), Lincoln used strategic terms repeatedly to emphasize unity no matter the events of the war. In describing the course of the Civil War, Lincoln describes the other side not as an intangible â€Å"it† but with a genuine sense of moral equivalency and respect. There are frequent references to the nation’s civil war as a tragedy for the collective nation. For example, the war is described as â€Å"the progress of our arms† (line 8). In describing what the war meant to the people of the United States, Lincoln uses the phrases â€Å"all† repetitively in line 12 (â€Å"all dreaded it, all sought to avert it†), the phrase â€Å"both† (line 16) and the term â€Å"each† (line 25) as well. Though Lincoln does ascribe some separating characteristics to North and South, he does not specifically assign b lame, instead ascribing relatively ambiguous terms. Halfway through the address, Lincoln has established the terms of the war and begins to reconcile using the word â€Å"neither† (line 24) to address both the North and the South; in using the negative â€Å"neither,† the president further reconciled the two parties by removing them both from the realm of culpability. Exonerating both entities, the president continues in the address by portraying opposing struggles in relatively positive terms. For instance, in line 28 the president describes each side’s fighting as the means in which both parties sought â€Å"an easier triumph†, giving all involved moral equivalency to one another. The venerated master politician closes the address with the completed theme of national reconciliation with the quotes â€Å"malice toward none† and â€Å"charity for all† (line 47). The strategic repetition of certain alliteration and assonance serves to emphasize the president’s points. For example, the issue of slavery is evoked as one of great importance by the repeated ‘p’ sound of â€Å"peculiar and powerful† (line 20). National reconciliation is reflected by the use of the ‘f’ sound of line 41, as the president communicates his perception of the American citizen as â€Å"fondly† hoping and â€Å"fervently† praying for a positive future. Such optimism was a necessity, as it was of the utmost importance that unity and reconciliation for a bright future were touted foremost on the political agenda. Despite the mass havoc, destruction, and loss of human life throughout the rebellious Confederate states, Lincoln’s address was crafted with an uncharacteristic optimism for the time. White notes that â€Å"after four years as a war president, Lincoln could look ahead to four years as a peace presidentâ €  (White 22). The Civil War was not the only issue addressed, however. North and South were only one party at odds with each other. The fledgling Republican party Lincoln so aptly represented was highly criticized for its disputed reconstruction plan. Moreover, political rifts still remained between Northern Democrats who remained loyal to the Union and the predominantly Southern Democrats who seceded. Thus, the â€Å"election of 1864 would be one of the most decisive in American history—and potentially the most catastrophic† (Striner 217). Lincoln’s political strategies were remarkable, most notably his ability to entertain the political goals of many without compromising his base of support. Alexander McClure’s compilation of letters revealed how politicians with opposing political agendas including â€Å"antagonistic elements to [Lincoln’s] own support† approached the president, who made it a point to â€Å"maintain close and often apparently confidential relations with each without offence to the other† (McClure 85). Lincoln’s proclivity towards national reconciliation stemmed from an â€Å"abiding faith in the people, in their intelligence and their patriotism†; the president â€Å"estimated political results by ascertaining, as far as possible, the popular bearing of every vital question that was likely to arise, and he formed his conclusions by his keen intuitive perception as to how the people would be likely to deal with the issues† (McClure 87). Lincoln was the ideal candidate to handle the fractious political environment of post-bellum America. There were few â€Å"political movements of national importance during Lincoln’s administration in which he did not actively, although often hiddenly, participate† (McClure 85). Crossing political party lines, Lincoln successively galvanized Congress across partisan issues. The Civil War marginalized not only Southerners, but also Northern Democrats who were among the minority of said party to support the Union against the insurgency. The second inaugural address could not alienate the already marginalized white Northern Democrats, as the actions of their Southern secessionist brethren made the Democratic Party something of a political pariah in the Union’s eye .In the years leading to Lincoln’s re-election, Democrats in the Union â€Å"never gave speeches, framed resolutions,† or took any stance of progressive thought for fear of eschewing Southern Democratic support. The issue of slavery, for example, was pivotal in Democratic thought and political action. Though touted by the president as â€Å"two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil† and inherently frowned upon by â€Å"God† and morality, slavery was a divisive issue among Northern Democrats to say the least (line 43). Though pockets of the North such as New England were adamantly abolitionist, there was no significant shortage of support for the institution of slavery on the grounds of racial superiority. For every â€Å"popular expression of the [black man] as human, there â€Å"was a [derisive] counterpart† that dehumanized the so-called â€Å"Negro† cause (McClure 88). Consequently, Lincoln faced problems among the Northern elite, who â€Å"by using popular [racist] language and symbols† managed to â€Å"link popular sentiments to party agenda† (McClure 89). Perhaps one of the most pivotal and important issues of the Lincoln administration, slavery and its abolition may very well have served as the archetype of social and political change for the American nation. Proponents of slavery were as such supportive of the institution for more than social or perceived moral imperative; in addition to being burdened by the incapacitation of agrarian and some industrial facilities at the end of the Civil War, the American economy would be burdened by the throwing of â€Å"4 million former slaves onto the world with virtually nothing: no land, no savings, little or no schooling, no experience of politics, the legal system, or the free economy† (Golay 208). Despite the president’s push for abolition and moral recompense with the equivocation of â€Å"every drop of blood drawn with the lash† to â€Å"another drawn by the sword† (lines 44-45), there was a rift in opinion over how best to deal with the economic windfall of s upporting four million newly impoverished freed slaves. The president encountered significant opposition from both parties in supporting the freed slave; Lincoln had established a bureau expected â€Å"to protect the freed people, distribute emergency relief to the destitute, build an equitable free labor system, and establish a system of basic education throughout the South† (Golay 208). The funding for the said bureau would naturally come from Reconstruction efforts, but few members of White America—North or South—would give equal priority to freed black slaves as they would confederate states. Lincoln faced the spectre of two types of nationalism: the nationalism defined by the then-predominantly Republican Union and the nationalism defined by what was a predominantly Democratic Confederacy. Jean Baker wrote in Affairs of Party: The Political Culture of Democrats in the Mid-Nineteenth Century that: â€Å"In the years before the Civil War one way to express nationalism was to be a Democrat. Some Americans still suspected political parties of subversion, but by mid-century the Democracy had emerged as an institution through which citizens could celebrate devotion to their country and at the same time favour particular programs, leaders, and ideals. No longer was partisanship considered antirepublican. On the contrary, its nature tended to evoke sentiment for the Union and thus forced Southern separatists like John Calhoun and William Yancey to attempt a replacement. In the North, however, the Democracy continued to inspire unity† (Baker 318). Once dominant in the public eye, the Democrats were faced with a new challenge and a new bane to overcome in the regaining of the Union’s trust. While the issue of partisan affiliation was not a topic nearly as frequented then as it is today, a considerable Democratic identity was established with the disaffected South; it was not for some time that the Democratic Party championed the Northern caucus. By comparison, Republicans in the mid-nineteenth century were equally as suspect to national dissolution, as the prevailing theme of the reigning Democratic party was â€Å"inescapably nationalistic,† focusing on â€Å"the preservation of union, liberty, and constitution† (Baker 318). Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address became an insightful indicator of the requisite political, social, and economic changes that were necessary in the reconstruction of post-bellum America. Galvanizing the country’s opposing social and political factions, Lincoln’s address was a masterful piece of oration that testified to both his earnest nature and shrewd understanding of not just politics, but the political climate of America and its fragile stasis. Its diction, alliteration, and religious allegories worked together in a patchwork of executive prestidigitation; Lincoln’s delivery was almost a political sleight of hand in its theme and scope. Though he would be assassinated in a matter of a few months following the delivery of the speech, Lincoln achieved political normalcy in the aftermath of America’s most debilitating war, garnering the collective enmity of an entire half of a nation and the admiration of the remainder. To his opponents, Lincoln was a democratically-elected aspiring autocrat as evidenced by John Wilkes Booth’s infamous quote â€Å"sic semper tyrannus.† To his grateful and loyal supporters, however, Lincoln managed the unthinkable: the abolition of slavery and the retention of American unity. BIBLIOGRAPHY Baker, Jean H. Affairs of Party: The Political Culture of Northern Democrats in theMid-Nineteenth Century. Bronx: Fordham U P, 1998. Golay, Michael. A Ruined Land: The End of the Civil War. New York: John Wiley Sons, 1999. McClure, Alexander K. Abraham Lincoln and Men of War-Times: SomePersonalRecollections of War and Politics During the Lincoln Administration. Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 1997. Striner, Richard. Father Abraham: Lincoln’s Relentless Struggle to End Slavery.Oxford: Oxford U P, 2006. Thurow, Glen E. American Political Religion. Albany: State U of Albany P, 1976. White, Ronald C. Lincoln’s Greatest Speech: The Second Inaugural. New York:Simon Schuster Press, 2002. Rable, George C. The Confederate Republic: A Revolution Against Politics

Models of cultural differences Essay

There are several different theories and models of cultural differences. Let us detect key dimensions that characterise different cultures. The work of Hall, Hofstede, Trompenaars and many others who study national cross-cultural differences has been invaluable in the area of cross-cultural studies. Edward Hall is a prominent cultural anthropologist. His theoretical framework includes a concept known as the context of culture or communication. Basically Hall argued that there is a continuum extending from a low to high degree of intense socialization within cultural groups. Hall introduces five dimensions as follows: 1. Space: Different cultures have different attitudes towards space. Social distance varies by culture. He revealed that there are different spatial zones that cultures will use for communication. For example among those of Anglo-Saxon heritage, in the United States, there is an intimate zone that extends from 0 to 18 inches from a person. Only close relations will communicate this closely. However, some cultures prefer much closer contact. For example, in many Arab cultures contact is so close that individuals frequently can smell the breaths and odours. 2. Material Goods: Such goods are used for power and status. 3. Friendship: Interpersonal relationships vary considerably across cultures. 4. Time: Linear time cultures take time and deadlines very seriously, in a very rationalist sense. Time is structured, sequential and linear. Hall distinguished between monochronic and polychronic time. Monochronic people and cultures prefer focusing on a single task at a time, and completing one task before beginning another. Polychronic cultures have the ability to focus on multiple priorities simultaneously. 5. Agreement: Expressing agreement and disagreement varies by culture. In some cultures the detailed written contract is essential to agreement, while in others a handshake is sufficient. An interesting study highlighting cultural orientations toward time was completed by Trompenaars. The point of that study was to determine time orientation of different cultures. This national study on time orientation revealed that countries such as Germany and the United States were primarily present and future oriented. Conversely, France was found to be much more focused on the past. Trompenaars develops his parameters of national cultures in such pair oppositions: 1. Universalism – Particularism: The universalist approach means that what is good and right applies everywhere, while the particularist emphasises the obligations of relationships. 2. Collectivism – Individualism: that indicates the relative closeness of the relationship between social group members. 3. Neutral – Emotional: Some cultures are affective in that they show emotions while others are neutral, control and subdue their emotions. 4. Specific – Diffuse: In specific oriented cultures the manager separates the work relationships with subordinates from other dealings with them. 5. Status: While some cultures give status on the basis of achievement, others ascribe it on the basis of age, class, gender, education, etc. 6. Sequential – Synchronic: In the former cultures time is treated as a sequence of events while on later cultures a number of events are juggled at the same time. 7. Inner-Directed – Outer-Directed: The former cultures believe that they can and should control nature while the later go along with nature. Hofstede (1991) defines culture as mental programming or the software of the mind. Hofstede identifies five national culture dimensions as follows (Hofstede, 1980), (Hofstede, 1991): 1. Power Distance that is the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. 2. Individualism-Collectivism that indicates the relative closeness of the relationship between team members. 3. Masculinity-Femininity that identifies the sexuality of roles in society and the degree to which a society allows overlap between the roles of men and women. 4. Uncertainty Avoidance that is the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations. 5. Long-term Orientation that is based on values of Confucianism showing to what degree do people value the future versus the past or present. The advantages of Hofstede’s dimensions include the fact that they are founded on outstanding psychological and sociological theories within the American and European traditions that are over 100 years old; they are empirically derived; they allow us to rank order nations on each dimension; and they are readily understandable by managers and students. While Hofstede’s dimensions provide an effective general approach for comparing the cultures of nations, they are not grounded to specific nations. His dimensions are designed to be culture-general rather than culture-specific. Moreover, Hofstede results are often hard to remember and difficult to use in daily cultural interactions. All of the above models are quite useful and have several strengths. However there are also some points of concern; some weakness that should be identified with respect to each model separately. Hall’s model is built on qualitative insights rather than quantitative data and does not rank different countries. Hofstede’s work has such main problems like it assumes that national territory corresponds to culture limits, omitting existing cultural non-uniformity in various countries included in the survey, or some of the dimensions effects overlap such as the small power distance characteristics with the feminine ones. For Trompenaars’ model the main problem is that the pool of informants is vaguely defined and lacks homogeneity, therefore the comparisons that are made between cultures are imprecise. References: Hall, E. T. & Hall, M. R. 1990 Understanding Cultural Differences, Intercultural Press. Hofstede, G. 1980 Cultures Consequences, Sage. Hofstede, G. 1991 Cultures and Organisations, McGraw-Hill. Trompenaars, F. 1993 Riding the Waves of Culture, Nicholas Brealey.

Computer Hardware Essay

I. LECTURE OVERVIEW Foundation Concepts: Computer Hardware, reviews trends and developments in microcomputer, midrange, and mainframe computer systems; basic computer system concepts; and the major types of technologies used in peripheral devices for computer input, output, and storage. Computer Systems – Major types of computer systems are summarized in Figure 13.2. A computer is a system of information processing components that perform input, processing, output, storage, and control functions. Its hardware components include input and output devices, a central processing unit (CPU), and primary and secondary storage devices. The major functions and hardware in a computer system are summarized in Figure 13.9 Microcomputer Systems – Microcomputers are used as personal computers, network computers, personal digital assistants, technical workstations, and information appliances. Like most computer systems today, microcomputers are interconnected in a variety of telecommunications networks. This typically includes local area networks, client/server networks, intranets and extranets, and the Internet. Other Computer Systems – Midrange computers are increasingly used as powerful network servers, and for many multiuser business data processing and scientific applications. Mainframe computers are larger and more powerful than most midsize computers. They are usually faster, have more memory capacity, and can support more network users and peripheral devices. They are designed to handle the information processing needs of large organizations with high volumes of transaction processing, or with complex computational problems. Supercomputers are a special category of extremely powerfu l mainframe computer systems designed for massive computational assignments. II. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Learning Objective †¢ Identify the major types, trends, and uses of microcomputer, midrange and mainframe computer systems. †¢ Outline the major technologies and uses of computer peripherals for input, output, and storage. †¢ Identify and give examples of the components and functions of a computer system. †¢ Identify the computer systems and peripherals you would acquire or recommend for a business of your choice, and explain the reasons for your selections. III. LECTURE NOTES Section 1: Computer Systems: End User and Enterprise Computing INTRODUCTION All computers are systems of input, processing, output, storage, and control components. Technology is evolving at a rapid pace, and new forms of input, output, processing, and storage devices continue to enter the market. Analyzing City of Richmond and Tim Beaty Builders We can learn a lot about innovative business uses of PDAs from this case. Take a few minutes to read it, and we will discuss it (See City of Richmond and Tim Beaty Builders in Section IX). TYPES OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS -[Figure 13.2] There are several major categories of computer systems with a variety of characteristics and capabilities. Thus, computer systems are typically classified as: †¢ Mainframe computers †¢ Midrange computers †¢ Microcomputers These categories are attempts to describe the relative computing power provided by different computing platforms or types of computers therefore, they are not precise classifications. Some experts predict the merging or disappearance of several computer categories. They feel that many midrange and mainframe systems have been made obsolete by the power and versatility of client/server networks of microcomputers and servers. Most recently, some  industry experts have predicted that the emergence of network computers and information appliances for applications on the Internet and corporate intranets will replace many personal computers, especially in large organisations and in the home computer market. MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEMS Microcomputers are the smallest but most important categories of computers systems for business people and consumers. They are also referred to as personal computers (or PCs). The computing power of current microcomputers exceeds that of the mainframe computers of previous generations at a fraction of their cost. They have become powerful-networked professional workstations for use by end users in business. Microcomputers  categorised by size 1. Handheld 2. Notebook 3. Laptop 4. Portable 5. Desktop 6. Floor-standing Microcomputers  categorised by use 1. Home 2. Personal 3. Professional 4. Workstation 5. Multi-user Systems Microcomputers  categorised by special purpose 1. Workstation Computers 2. Network Servers 3. Personal Digital Assistants Workstation Computers – some microcomputers are powerful workstation  computers (technical work stations) that support applications with heavy mathematical computing and graphics display demands such as computeraided design (CAD) in engineering, or investment and portfolio analysis in the securities industry. Network Servers – are usually more powerful microcomputers that co-ordinate telecommunications and resource  sharing in small local area networks (LANs), and Internet and intranet websites. This is the fastest growing microcomputer application category. Network Computers: †¢ Network Computers (NCs) are a major new microcomputer category designed primarily for use with the Internet and corporate intranets by clerical workers, operational employees, and knowledge workers with specialised or limited computing applications. In-between NCs and full-featured PCs are stripped-down PCs known as NetPCs or legacy-free PCs. NetPCs are designed for the Internet and a limited range of applications within a company. Examples are: Dell’s Webpc, Compaq’s IPaq, HP’s e-PC, and eMachine’s eOne. Network computers (also called thin clients) are low-cost, sealed, networked microcomputers with no or minimal disk storage. Users of network computers depend primarily on Internet and intranet servers for their operating system and web browser, Java-enabled application software, and data access and storage. Main attractions of network computers over full-featured PCs are their low cost to: †¢ Purchase †¢ Upgrade †¢ Maintenance †¢ Support Other benefits to businesses include: †¢ Ease of software distribution and licensing †¢ Computing platform standardisation †¢ Reduced end user support requirements †¢ Improved manageability through centralised management and enterprisewide control of computer network resources. Information Appliances The market is offering a number of gadgets and information appliances that offer users the capability to perform enable host of basic computational chores. Examples of some information appliances include: †¢ Personal Digital Assistants – (PDAs) are designed for convenient mobile communications and computing. PDAs use touch screens, pen-based handwriting recognition, or keyboards to help mobile workers send and receive E-mail, access the Web, and exchange information such as appointments, to-do lists, and sales contacts with their desktop PCs or web servers. †¢ Set-top boxes and video-game consoles that connect to home TV sets. These devices enable you to surf the Web or send and receive E-mail and watch TV programs or play video games at the same time. †¢ Wireless PDAs and cellular and PCS phones and wired telephone-based appliances that can send and receive E-mail and access the Web. Computer Terminals Computer terminals are undergoing a major conversion to networked computer devices. For example: †¢ Dumb terminals are keyboard/video monitor devices with limited processing capabilities, to intelligent terminals, which are modified networked PCs, network computers or other microcomputer-powered network devices. Intelligent terminals can perform data entry and some information processing tasks independently. †¢ Networked terminals which may be Windows terminals that are dependent on network servers for Windows software, processing power, and storage, or Internet terminals, which depend on Internet or intranet website servers for their operating systems and application software. †¢ Transaction terminals are a form of intelligent terminal. Uses can be found in banks retail stores, factories, and other work sites. Examples are ATM’s, factory production recorders, and POS terminals. MIDRANGE COMPUTER SYSTEMS Midrange computers, including minicomputers and high-end network servers, are  multi-user systems that can  manage networks of PCs and terminals. Characteristics of midrange computers include: †¢ Generally, midrange computers are general-purpose computers that are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than most large mainframes. †¢ Cost less to buy, operate, and maintain than mainframe computers. †¢ Have become popular as powerful network servers to help manage large Internet websites, corporate intranets and extranets, and client/server networks. †¢ Electronic commerce and other business uses of the Internet are popular high-end server applications, as are integrated enterprisewide manufacturing, distribution, and financial applications. †¢ Data warehouse management, data mining, and online analytical processing are contributing to the growth of high-end servers and other midrange systems. †¢ First became popular as minicomputers for scientific research, instrumentation systems, engineering analysis, and industrial process monitoring and control. Minicomputers could easily handle such uses because these applications are narrow in scope and do not demand the processing versatility of mainframe systems. †¢ Serve as industrial process-control and manufacturing plant computers and they play a major role in computeraided manufacturing (CAM). †¢ Take the form of powerful technical workstations for computer-aided design (CAD) and other computation and graphics-intensive applications. †¢ Are used as front-end computers to assist mainframe computers in telecommunications processing and network management. †¢ Can function in ordinary operating environments (do not need air conditioning or electrical wiring). †¢ Smaller models of minicomputers do not need a staff of specialists to operate them. MIDRANGE COMPUTER APPLICATIONS Serve as industrial process-control and manufacturing plant computers. Play a major role in computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Serve as powerful technical workstations for computer-aided design (CAD) and other computation and graphics-intensive applications Serve as front-end computers to assist mainframe computers in telecommunications processing and network management. Midrange Computer as Network Server: †¢ Electronic commerce and other business uses of the Internet are popular high-end server applications, as are integrated enterprisewide manufacturing, distribution, and financial applications. †¢ Other applications, like data warehouse management, data mining, and online analytical processing are contributing to the growth of high-end servers and other midrange systems. †¢ Serve as powerful network servers to help manage large Internet web sites, corporate Intranets and extranets, and client/server networks MAINFRAME COMPUTER SYSTEMS Mainframe computers are large, fast, and powerful computer systems. Characteristics of mainframe computers include: †¢ They are physically larger and more powerful than micros and minis. †¢ Can process hundreds of millions of instructions per second (MIPS). †¢ Have large primary storage capacities. Main memory capacity can range from hundreds of megabytes to many gigabytes of primary storage. †¢ Mainframes have slimmed down drastically in the last few years, dramatically reducing air-conditioning needs, electronic power consumption, and floor space requirements, and thus their acquisition and operating costs. †¢ Sales of mainframes have increased due to cost reductions and the increase  in applications such as data mining and warehousing, decision support, and electronic commerce. Mainframe Computer Applications: †¢ Handle the information processing needs of major corporations and government agencies with many employees and customers. †¢ Handle enormous and complex computational problems. †¢ Used in organisations processing great volumes of transactions. †¢ Handle great volumes of complex calculations involved in scientific and engineering analyses and simulations of complex design projects. †¢ Serve as superservers for the large client/server networks and high-volume Internet web sites of large companies. †¢ Are becoming a popular business-computing platform for data mining and warehousing, and electronic commerce applications. Supercomputer Systems: The term supercomputer describes a category of extremely powerful computer systems specifically designed for scientific, engineering, and business applications requiring extremely high-speeds for massive numeric computations. Supercomputer Applications: †¢ Used by government research agencies, large universities, and major corporations. †¢ Are used for applications such as global weather forecasting, military defence systems, computational cosmology and astronomy, microprocessor research and design, large scale data mining, large time-sharing networks, and so on. †¢ Use parallel processing architectures of interconnected microprocessors (which can execute many instructions at the same time in parallel). †¢ Can perform arithmetic calculations at speeds of billions of floating-point operations per second (gigaflops). Teraflop (1 trillion floating-point operations per second) supercomputers, which use advanced massively parallel  processing (MPP) designs of thousands of interconnected microprocessors, are becoming available. †¢ Purchase price for large supercomputers are in the $5 million to $50 million range. Mini-supercomputers: The use of symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and distributed shared memory (DSM) designs of smaller numbers of interconnected microprocessors has spawned a breed of mini-supercomputer with prices that start in the hundreds of thousands of dollars. TECHNICAL NOTE: THE COMPUTER SYSTEM CONCEPTS – [Figure 13.9] As a business professional, you do not need a detailed technical knowledge of computers. However, you do need to understand some basic facts and concepts about computer systems. This should help you be an informed and productive user of computer system resources. A computer is a system, an interrelated combination of components that perform the basic system functions of input, processing, output, storage, and control, thus providing end users with a powerful information-processing tool. Understanding the computer as a computer system is vital to the effective use and management of computers. A computer is a system of hardware devices organised according to the following system functions: †¢ Input. Examples of some input devices of a computer system include: 1. Keyboards 2. Touch Screens3. Light Pens 4. Electronic Mice 4. Optical Scanners 5. Voice Input They convert data into electronic machine-readable form for direct entry or through a telecommunications network into a computer system. Processing. The central processing unit (CPU) is the main processing component of a computer system. (In microcomputers, it is the main microprocessor). One of the CPU’s major components is the arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) that performs the arithmetic and logic functions required in computer processing. Components of the CPU include: 1. Control Unit 2. Arithmetic-Logic Unit 3. Primary Storage Unit Output. Convert electronic information produced by the computer system into human-intelligible form for presentation to end-users. Examples of output devices include: 1. Video Display Units 2. Audio Response Units 3. Printers Storage. The storage function of a computer system is used to store data and program instructions needed for processing. Storage devices include: 1. Primary Storage Unit (main memory) 2. Secondary Storage Devices (magnetic disk and tape units, optical disks) Control. The control unit of a CPU interprets computer program instructions and transmits directions to the other components of the computer system. Computer Processing Speeds: Operating speeds of computers are measured in a number of ways. For example: †¢ Milliseconds – Thousands of a second. Microseconds – Millionths of a second. Nanoseconds – Billionth of a second Picosecond – Trillionth of a second Other terminology used includes: Teraflop – used by some supercomputers MIPS – Million instructions per second Megahertz (MHz) – Millions of cycles per second Gigahertz (GHz) – Billions of cycles per second Clock Speed – used to rate microprocessors by the speed of their timing circuits and internal clock. Section II: Computer Peripherals: Input, Output, and Storage Technologies INTRODUCTION A computer is just a high-powered â€Å"processing box† without peripherals. Your personal computing needs will dictate the components you choose for our particular computing needs. Analyzing United Technologies and Eastman Kodak We can learn a lot about the business value of consolidating computer operations and systems from this case. Take a few minutes to read it, and we will discuss it (See United Technologies and Eastman Kodak in Section IX). PERIPHERALS Peripherals are the generic name for all input, output, and secondary storage devices that are part of a computer system. Peripherals depend on direct connections or telecommunications links to the central processing unit of a  computer system. Thus, all peripherals are online devices, that is, separate from, but can be electronically connected to and controlled by, a CPU. This is the opposite of off-line devices, which are separate from and not under the control of the CPU. INPUT TECHNOLOGY There has been a major trend toward the increased use of input technologies that provide a more natural user interface for computer users. More and more data and commands are being entered directly and easily into computer systems through pointing devices like electronic mice and touch pads, and technologies like optical scanning, handwriting recognition, and voice recognition. POINTING DEVICES Keyboards are still the most widely used devices for entering data and text into computer systems. However, pointing devices are a better alternative for issuing commands, making choices, and responding to prompts displayed on your video screen. They work with your operating system’s graphical user interface (GUI), which presents you with icons, menus, windows, buttons, bars, and so on, for your selection. Examples of pointing devices include: †¢ Electronic Mouse – A device used to move the cursor on the screen, as well as to issue commands and make icon and menu selections. †¢ Trackball – A device used to move the cursor on the display screen. Pointing Stick – A small buttonlike device, sometimes likened to the eraser head of a pencil. The cursor moves in the direction of the pressure you place on the track point. Touchpad – A small rectangular touch-sensitive surface usually placed below the keyboard. The cursor moves in the direction your finger moves on the pad. Touch Screens – A device that accepts data input by the placement of a finger on or close to the CRT screen. PEN-BASED COMPUTING Pen-based computing technologies are being used in many hand-held computers and personal digital assistants. These small PCs and PDAs contain fast processors and software that recognises and digitises handwriting, hand printing, and hand drawing. They have a pressure-sensitive layer like a graphics pad under their slatelike liquid crystal display (LCD) screen. A variety of penlike devices are available: Digitizer Pen – A photoelectronic device that can be used as a pointing device, or used to draw or write on a pressure-sensitive surface of a graphics tablet. Graphics Tablet – A device that allows an end user to draw or write on a pressure-sensitive tablet and has their handwriting or graphics digitised by the computer and accepted as input. SPEECH RECOGNITION SYSTEMS Speech recognition and voice response (in their infancy) promise to be the easiest method of data entry, word processing, and conversational computing, since speech is the easiest, most natural means of human communication. Speech recognition systems analyse and classify speech or vocal tract patterns and convert them into digital codes for entry into a computer system. Early voice recognition products used discrete speech recognition, where you had to pause between each spoken word. New continuous speech recognition (CSR) software recognises controlled, conversationally paced speech. Examples of continuous speech recognition software include: †¢ NaturallySpeaking by Dragon Systems †¢ ViaVoice by IBM †¢ VoiceXpress by Lernout & Hauspie †¢ FreeSpeech by Philips Areas where speech recognition systems are used include: †¢ Manufacturers use it for inspection, inventory, and quality control †¢ Airlines and parcel delivery companies use it for voice-directed sorting of baggage and parcels †¢ Voice activated GPS systems are being used in advanced car design †¢ Physicians use it to enter and printout prescriptions †¢ Gemmologists use it to free up their hands when inspecting and grading precious stones †¢ Handicapped individuals use voice-enabled software to operate their computers, e-mail, and surf the World Wide Web. Speaker-independent voice recognition systems allow a computer to understand a few words from a voice it has never heard before. They enable computers to respond to verbal and touch-tone input over the telephone. Examples include: †¢ Computerized telephone call switching †¢ Telemarketing surveys †¢ Bank pay-by-phone bill-paying services †¢ Stock quotations services †¢ University registration systems †¢ Customer credit and account balance inquiries OPTICAL SCANNING Optical scanning devices read text or graphics and convert them into digital input for a computer. Optical scanning enables the direct entry of data from source documents into a computer system. Popular uses of optical scanning include: †¢ Scanning pages of text and graphics into your computer for desktop publishing and web publishing applications. †¢ Scan documents into your system and organize them into folders as part of a document management library system for easy reference or retrieval.  There are many types of optical scanners, but they all employ photoelectric devices to scan the characters being read. Reflected light patterns of the  data are converted into electronic impulses that are then accepted as input into the computer system. Optical scanning technology known as optical character recognition (OCR) can read special-purpose characters and codes. OCR scanners are used to read characters and codes on:   Merchandise tags Product labels Credit card receipts Utility bills Insurance premiums Airline tickets Sort mail Score tests Process business and government forms Devices such as handheld optical scanning wands are used to read OCR coding on merchandise tags and other media. Many business applications involve reading bar code, a code that utilises bars to represent characters. One common example is the Universal Produce Code (UPC) bar coding that you see on packages of food items and many other products. OTHER INPUT TECHNOLOGIES Magnetic stripe technology is a familiar form of data entry that helps computers read credit cards. The dark magnetic stripe on the back of such cards is the same iron oxide coating as on magnetic tape. Smart cards that embed a microprocessor chip and several kilobytes of memory into debit, credit, and other cards are popular in Europe, and becoming available in the United States. Digital cameras and digital video cameras enable you to shoot, store, and download still photos or full motion video with audio into your PC. Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) is machine recognition of characters printed with magnetic ink. Primarily used for check processing by the banking industry. OUTPUT TECHNOLOGIES Computers provide information in a variety of forms. Video displays and printed documents have been, and still are, the most common forms of output from computer systems. But other natural and attractive output technologies such as voice response systems and multimedia output are increasingly found along with video displays in business applications. VIDEO OUTPUT Video displays are the most common type of computer output. Most desktop computers rely on video monitors that use cathode ray tube (CRT) technology. Usually, the clarity of the video display depends on the type of video monitor you use and the graphics circuit board installed in your computer. A high-resolution, flicker-free monitor is especially important if you spend a lot of time viewing multimedia on CDs or the Web, or complex graphical displays of many software packages. The biggest use of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) is to provide a visual display capability for portable microcomputers and PDAs. LCD displays need significantly less electric current and provide a thin, flat display. Advances in technology such as active matrix and dual scan capabilities have improved the color and clarity of LCD displays. PRINTED OUTPUT After video displays, printed output is the most common form of output displays. Most personal computer systems rely on inkjet or laser printers to produce permanent (hard copy) output in high-quality printed form. Printed output is still a common form of business communications, and is frequently required for legal documentation. †¢ Inkjet printers – Spray ink onto a page one line at a time. They are popular, low-cost printers for microcomputer systems. They are quiet, produce several pages per minute of high-quality output, and can print both black-and-white and high-quality colour graphics. Laser Printers – Use an electrostatic process similar to a photocopying machine to produce many pages per minute of high-quality black-and-white output. More expensive colour laser printers and multifunction inkjet and laser models that print, fax, scan, and copy are other popular choices for business offices. STORAGE TRADE-OFFS Data and information need to be stored after input, during processing, and before output. Computer-based information systems rely primarily on the memory circuits and secondary storage devices of computer systems to accomplish the storage function. Major trends in primary and secondary storage methods: †¢ Progress in very-large scale integration (VLSI), which packs millions of memory circuit elements on tiny semiconductor memory chips, are responsible for continuing increases in the main-memory capacity of computers. †¢ Secondary storage capacities are also expected to escalate into the billions and trillions of characters, due primarily to the use of optical media.  Storage Trade-offs: Speed, capacity, and cost relationships. †¢ Note the cost/speed/capacity trade-offs as one moves from semiconductor memories to magnetic media, such as magnetic disks and tapes, to optical disks. †¢ High-speed storage media cost more per byte and provide lower capacities. †¢ Large capacity storage media cost less per byte but are slower †¢ Semiconductor memories are used mainly for primary storage, though they are sometimes used as high-speed secondary storage devices. †¢ Magnetic disk and tape and optical disk devices are used as secondary storage devices to greatly enlarge the storage capacity of computer systems. †¢ Most primary storage circuits use RAM (random access memory) chips, which lose their contents when electrical power is interrupted †¢ Secondary storage devices provide a more permanent type of storage media for storage of data and programs. Computer Storage Fundamentals: [Figure 13.20] Data is processed and stored in a computer system through the presence or absence of electronic or magnetic signals in the computer’s circuitry in the media it uses. This is called a â€Å"two-state† or binary representation of data, since the computer and media can exhibit only two possible states or conditions – ON (1) or OFF (0). Computer storage elements: †¢ Bit – is the smallest element of data, (binary digit) which can have a value of zero or one. The capacity of  memory chips is usually expressed in terms of bits. Byte – is the basic grouping of bits that the computer operates as a single unit. It typically consists of 8 bits and is used to represent one character of data in most computer coding schemes (e.g. 8 bits = 1 byte). The capacity of a computer’s memory and secondary storage devices is usually expressed in terms of bytes. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) Pronounced: EB SEE DICK Storage capacities are frequently measured in: Kilobyte = 1,000 bytes Megabyte = 1,000,000 bytes Gigabyte = 1,000,000,000 bytes Terabyte = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes Petabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Exabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Zettabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Yottabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Direct and Sequential Access †¢ Direct Access – Primary storage media such as semiconductor memory chips are called direct access or random access memories (RAM). Magnetic disk devices are frequently called direct access storage devices (DASDs). The terms direct access and random access describe the same concept. They mean that an element of data or instructions can be directly stored and retrieved by selecting and using any of the locations on the storage media. They also mean that each storage position (1) has a unique address and (2) can be individually accessed in approximately the same length of time without having to search through other storage positions. Sequential Access – sequential access storage media such as magnetic tape do not have unique storage addresses that can be directly addressed. Instead, data must be stored and retrieved using a sequential or serial process. Data are recorded one after another in a predetermined sequence on a storage medium. Locating an individual item of data requires searching much of the recorded data on the tape until the desired item is located. SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY The primary storage (main memory) on most modern computers consists of microelectronic semiconductor memory circuits. Plug-in memory circuit boards containing 32 megabytes or more of memory chips can be added to your PC to increase its memory capacity. Specialized memory can help improve your computer’s performance. Examples include: †¢ External cache memory of 512 kilobytes to help your microprocessor work faster †¢ Video graphics accelerator cards with 16 megabytes of RAM are used for faster and clearer video performance †¢ Removable credit-card-size and smaller â€Å"flash memory† RAM cards provide several megabytes of erasable direct access storage for PDAs or hand-held PCs. Some of the major attractions of semiconductor memory are: †¢ Small size †¢ Fast speed †¢ Shock and temperature resistance One major disadvantage of most semiconductor memory is: †¢ Volatility – Uninterrupted electric power must be supplied or the contents of memory will be lost (except with  read only memory, which is permanent). There are two basic types of semiconductor memory: †¢ Random Access Memory (RAM) – these memory chips are the most widely used primary storage medium. Each memory position can be both read and written, so it is also called read/write memory. This is a volatile memory. †¢Ã‚  Read Only Memory (ROM) – Non-volatile random access memory chips are used for permanent storage. ROM can be read but not erased or overwritten. Instructions and programs in primary storage can be permanently â€Å"burned in†Ã‚  to the storage cells during manufacturing. This permanent software is also called firmware. Variations include PROM (programmable read only memory) and EPROM (erasable programmable read only memory), which can be permanently or temporarily programmed after manufacture. MAGNETIC DISK STORAGE These are the most common forms of secondary storage for modern computer systems. That’s because they provide fast access and high storage capacities at a reasonable cost. Characteristics of magnetic disks: †¢ Disk drives contain metal disks that are coated on both sides with an iron oxide recording material. †¢ Several disks are mounted together on a vertical shaft, which typically rotates the disks are speeds of 3,600 to 7,600 revolutions per minute (rpm) †¢ Access arms between the slightly separated disks to read and write data on concentric, circular tracks position electromagnetic read/write heads. †¢ Data are recorded on tracks in the form of tiny magnetized spots to form the binary digits of common computer codes. †¢ Thousands of bytes can be recorded on each track, and there are several hundred data tracks on each disk surface, which provides you with billions of storage positions for software and data. Types of Magnetic Disks There are several types of magnetic disk arrangements, including disk cartridges as well as fixed disk units. Removable disk devices are popular because they are transportable and can be used to store backup copies of your data off-line for convenience and security. Floppy Disks, or magnetic disks, consist of polyester film disks covered with an iron oxide compound. A single disk is mounted and rotates freely inside a protective flexible or hard plastic jacket, which has access openings to accommodate the read/write head of a disk drive unit. The 3-1/2-inch floppy disk, with capacities of 1.44 megabytes, is the most widely used version, with a newer Superdisk technology offering 120 megabytes of storage. Hard Disk Drives combine magnetic disks, access arms, and read/write heads into a sealed module. This allows higher speeds, greater data-recording densities,  and closer tolerances within a sealed, more stable environment. Fixed or removable disk cartridge versions are available. Capacities of hard drives range from several hundred megabytes to many gigabytes of storage. RAID Storage Disk arrays of interconnected microcomputer hard disk drives have replaced large-capacity mainframe disk drives to provide many gigabytes of online storage. Known as RAID (redundant arrays of independent disks), they combine from 6 to more than 100 small hard disk drives and their control microprocessors into a single unit. Advantages of RAID disks include: †¢ Provide large capacities with high access speeds since data is accessed in parallel over multiple paths from many disks. †¢ Provide fault tolerant capability, since their redundant design offers multiple copies of data on several disks. If one disk fails, data can be recovered from backup copies automatically stored on other disks. †¢ Storage area networks (SANs) are high-speed fibre channel local area networks that can interconnect many RAID units and share their combined capacity through network servers for many users. MAGNETIC TAPE STORAGE Magnetic Tape is still being used as a secondary storage medium in business applications. The read/write heads of magnetic tape drives record data in the form of magnetised spots on the iron oxide coating of the plastic tape. Magnetic tape devices include tape reels and cartridges in mainframes and midrange systems, and small cassettes or cartridges for PCs. These devices serve as slower, but lower cost, storage to supplement magnetic disks to meet massive data warehouse and other business storage requirements. Other major applications for magnetic tape include long-term archival storage and backup storage for PCs and other systems. OPTICAL DISK STORAGE Optical disk storage involves technology, which is based on using a laser to read tiny spots on a plastic disk. The disks are currently capable of storing billions of characters of information. †¢Ã‚  CD-ROM – A common type of optical disk used on microcomputers. They are used for read only storage. Storage is over 600 megabytes per disk. This is equivalent to over 400 1.44-megabyte floppy disks or 300,000 double-spaced pages of text. Data are recorded as microscopic pits in a spiral track, and are read using a laser device. Limitation: Recorded data cannot be erased †¢Ã‚  CD-R – (Compact disk recordable) is another optical disk technology. It enables computers with CD-R disk drive units to record their own data once on a CD, and then be able to read the data indefinitely. Limitation: Recorded data cannot be erased †¢Ã‚  CD-RW – (CD-rewritable) optical disk systems have now become available which record and erase data by using a laser to heat a microscopic point on the disk’s surface. In CD-RW versions using magneto-optical technology, a magnetic coil changes the spot’s reflective properties from one direction to another, thus recording a binary one to zero. A laser device can then read the binary codes on the disk by sensing the direction of reflected light. †¢Ã‚  DVD – (Digital Video Disk or Digital Versatile Disk) can hold from 3.0 to 8.5 gigabytes of multimedia data on each side of a compact disk. The large capacities and high- quality images and sound of DVD technology are expected to eventually replace CD-ROM and CD-RW technologies for data storage, and  promise to accelerate the use of DVD drives for multimedia products that can be used in both computers and home entertainment systems. †¢ DVD-ROM is beginning to replace magnetic tape videocassettes for movies and other multimedia products. †¢ DVD – RAM is being used for backup and archival storage data and multimedia files. Business Applications One of the major uses of optical disks in mainframe and midrange systems is in image processing, where longterm archival storage of historical files of document images must be maintained. Mainframe and midrange computer versions of optical disks use 12-inch plastic disks with capacities of several gigabytes, with up to 20 disks held in jukebox drive units. WORM – (Write Once, Read Many) versions of optical disks are used to store data on the disk. Although data can only be stored once, it can be read an infinite number of times. One of the major business uses of CD-ROM disks for personal computers is to provide a publishing medium for fast access to reference materials in a convenient, compact form. These include: †¢ Catalogs †¢ Directories †¢ Manuals †¢Ã‚  Periodical abstracts †¢Ã‚  Part listings †¢Ã‚  Statistical databases of business activity and economic activity Interactive multimedia applications in business, education, and entertainment using CD-ROM and DVD disks. Optical disks have become a popular storage medium for image processing and multimedia business applications and they appear to be a promising alternative to magnetic disks and tape for very large mass storage capabilities for enterprise computing systems. However, rewritable optical technologies are still being perfected. Also, most optical disk devices are significantly slower and more expensive (per byte of storage) than magnetic disk devices. So optical disk systems are not expected to displace magnetic disk technology in the near future for most business applications. IV. KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS – DEFINED Binary Representation: Pertaining to the presence or absence of electronic or magnetic â€Å"signals† in the computer’s circuitry or in the media it uses. There are only two possible states or conditions – presence or absence. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The unit of a computer system that includes the circuits that controls the interpretation and execution of instructions. In many computer systems, the CPU includes the arithmetic-logic unit, the control unit, and primary storage unit. Computer System: Computer hardware as a system of input, processing, output, storage, and control components. Thus a computer system consists of input and output devices, primary and secondary storage devices, the central processing unit, the control unit within the CPU, and other peripheral devices. Computer Terminal: Any input/output device connected by telecommunications links to a computer. Digital Cameras: Digital still cameras and digital video cameras enable you to shoot, store, and download still photos or full-motion video with audio in your PC. Direct Access: A method of storage where each storage position has a unique address and can be individually accessed in approximately the same period of time without having to search through other storage positions. Information Appliance: Devices for consumers to access the Internet. Laptop Computer: A small portable PC. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD): Electronic visual displays that form characters by applying an electrical charge to selected silicon crystals. Magnetic Disk Storage: Data storage technology that uses magnetised spots on metal or plastic disks. Magnetic Disk Storage – Floppy Disk: Small phonograph record enclosed in a protective envelope. It is a widely used form of magnetic disk media that provides a direct access storage capability for microcomputer systems. Magnetic Disk Storage – Hard Disk Secondary storage medium; generally nonremovable disks made out of metal and covered with a magnetic  recording surface. It holds data in the form of magnetised spots. Magnetic Disk Storage – RAID Redundant array of independent disks. Magnetic disk units that house many interconnected microcomputer hard disk drives, thus providing large, fault tolerant storage capacities. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): The machine recognition of characters printed with magnetic ink. Primarily used for check processing by the banking industry. Magnetic Stripe: A magnetic stripe card is a plastic wallet-size card with a strip of magnetic tape on one surface; widely used for credit/debit cards. Magnetic Tape: A plastic tape with a magnetic surface on which data can be stored by selective magnetisation of portions of the surface. Mainframe Computer: A larger-size computer system, typically with a separate central processing unit, as distinguished from microcomputer and minicomputer systems. Microcomputer: A very small computer, ranging in size from a â€Å"Computer on a chip† to a small typewriter-size unit. Microprocessor: A semiconductor chip with circuitry for processing data. Midrange Computer: Larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than most large mainframe computer systems. Minicomputer: A small electronic general-purpose computer. Network Computer: A new category of microcomputer designed mainly for use with the Internet and Intranets on tasks requiring limited or specialised applications and no or minimal disk storage. Network Server: A type of midrange computer used to co-ordinate telecommunications and resource sharing and manages large web sites, Intranets, extranets, and client/server networks. Network Terminal: A terminal that depends on network servers for its software and processing power. Off-line: Pertaining to equipment or devices not under control of the central processing unit. Online: Pertaining to equipment or devices under control of the central processing unit. Optical Character Recognition (OCR): The machine identification of printed characters through the use of light-sensitive devices. Optical Disk Storage: Technology based on using a laser to read tiny spots on a plastic disk. The disks are currently capable of storing billions of characters of information. Optical Disk Storage – CD-ROM: An optical disk technology for microcomputers featuring compact disks with a storage capacity of over 500 megabytes. Optical Disk Storage – CD-R: Compact disk recordable (CD-R) enables computers with CD-R disk drive units to record their own data once on a CD, than be able to read the data indefinitely. Optical Disk Storage – CD-RW: Compact disk rewritable (CD-RW) enables computers with CD-RW disk drive units to record and erase data by using a laser to heat a microscopic point on the disk’s surface. Optical Disk Storage – DVD: Digital video disk or digital versatile disk (DVD) enables computers with DVD disk drive units to hold from 3.0 to 8.5 gigabytes of multimedia data on each side of a compact disk. Optical Disk Storage – WORM Disk: Optical disk that allows users to write once, read many times. Optical Scanning: Using a device (scanner) that scans characters or images and generates their digital representations. Pen-Based Computing: Tablet-style microcomputers that recognise hand-writing and hand-drawing done by a pen-shaped device on their pressure sensitive display screens. Peripheral Devices: In a computer system, any unit of equipment, distinct from the central processing unit, that provides the system with input, output, or storage capabilities. Personal Digital Assistant: Handheld microcomputer devices, which are designed for convenient mobile communications and computing. Pointing Devices: Devices, which allow end users to issue commands or make choices by moving a cursor on the display, screen. Pointing Device – Electronic Mouse: A small device that is electronically connected to a computer and is moved by hand on a flat surface in order to move the cursor on a video screen in the same direction. Buttons on the mouse allow users to issue commands and make  responses or selections. Pointing Device – Pointing Stick: A small buttonlike device sometimes likened to the eraser head of a pencil. The cursor moves in the direction of the pressure you place on the track point. Pointing Device – Touchpad: Is a small rectangular touch-sensitive surface usually placed below the keyboard. The cursor moves in the direction your finger moves on the pad. Pointing Device – Trackball: A roller device set in a case used to move the cursor on a computer’s display screen. Primary Storage: The main (or internal) memory of a computer. Usually in the form of semiconductor storage. Printers: Devices that produce hard copy output such as paper documents or reports. Secondary Storage: External or auxiliary storage device that supplements the primary storage of a computer. Semiconductor Memory: Microelectronic storage circuitry etched on tiny chips of silicon or other semiconducting material. Semiconductor Memory – RAM: Also known as main memory or primary storage; type of memory that temporarily holds data and instructions needed shortly by the CPU. RAM is a volatile type of storage. Semiconductor Memory – ROM: Also known as firmware; a memory chip that permanently stores instructions and data that are programmed during the chip’s manufacture. Three variations on the ROM chip are PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. ROM is a nonvolatile form of storage. Sequential Access: A sequential method of storing and retrieving data from a file. Smart Cards: Cards such as debit and credit cards, which have an embedded microprocessor chip and several kilobytes of memory. Speech Recognition: Direct conversion of spoken data into electronic form suitable for entry into a computer system. Promises to be the easiest, most natural way to communicate with computers. Storage Capacity Elements: Units used for storage capacity and data: bits, bytes, kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), terabytes (TB). Storage Capacity Elements – Bit: A contraction of â€Å"binary digit†. It can have the value of either 0 or 1. Storage Capacity Elements – Byte: A sequence of adjacent binary digits operated on as a unit and usually shorter than a computer word. In many computer systems, a byte is a grouping of eight bits that can represent one alphabetic or special character or can be â€Å"packed† with two decimal digits. Storage Capacity Elements – Kilobyte (K or KB): When referring to computer storage capacity it is equivalent to 2 to the 10th power, or 1,014 in decimal notation. Storage Capacity Elements – Megabyte (MB): One million bytes. More accurately, 2 to the 20th power, 1,048,576 in decimal notation. Storage Capacity Elements – Gigabyte (GB): One billion bytes. More accurately, 2 to the 30th power, or 1,073,741,824 in decimal notation. Storage Capacity Elements – Terabyte (TB): One trillion bytes. More accurately, 2 to the 40th power, or 1,009,511,627,776 in decimal notation. Storage Media Trade-offs: The trade-offs in cost, speed, and capacity of various storage media. Supercomputer: A special category of large computer systems that are the most powerful available. They are designed to solve massive computational problems. Time Elements: Units used for measuring processing speeds: milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds, and picoseconds. Time Elements – Millisecond: A thousandth of a second. Time Elements – Microsecond: A millionth of a second. Time Elements – Nanosecond: One billionth of a second. Time Elements – Picosecond: One trillionth of a second. Touch-Sensitive Screen: An input device that accepts data input by the placement of a finger on or close to the CRT screen. Transaction Terminals: Terminals used in banks, retail stores, factories, and other work sites that are used to capture transaction data at their point of origin. Examples are point-of-sale (POS) terminals and automated teller machines (ATMs). Video Output: Video displays are the most common type of computer output. Volatility: Memory (such as electronic semiconductor memory) that loses its contents when electrical power is interrupted. Wand: A handheld optical character recognition device used for data entry by many transaction terminals. Workstation: A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed to support the work of one person. Also, a highpowered computer to support the work of professionals in engineering, science, and other areas that require extensive computing power and graphics capabilities. V. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Do you agree with the statement: â€Å"The network is the computer†?   What trends are occurring in the development and use of the major types of computer systems? Do you think that network computers (NCs) will replace personal computers (PCs) in business applications? Are networks of PCs and servers making mainframe computers obsolete?   What  trends are occurring in the development and use of peripheral devices? Why are those trends occurring? When would you recommend the use of each of the following:   Network computers NetPCs Network terminals Information appliances in business applications What processor, memory, magnetic disk storage, and video display capabilities would you require for a personal computer that you would use for business purposes?   What other peripheral devices and capabilities would you want to have for your business PC?